Pdf civil engineering projects

The possible range of the cost should be shown; but whether the employer chooses to quote the highest or lowest estimate is up to him. Many a major project providing a major benefit including the Channel Tunnel would probably not have been built if the initial estimate quoted for it by the employer had not erred on the optimistic side.

The designs should show the layout and sizes of component works required. For each such component it should be possible to make an approximate estimate of the quantities of the key structural oper- ations required, such as bulk excavation, main concrete in framework and floors, wall areas, and roof areas. Examination of recent priced contracts can then produce cost parameters that can be applied to the estimated quantities for the proposed structure. For example, using a past priced contract, the total concrete costs inclusive of formwork, reinforcement, finishes, joints, etc.

Similar all-in cost parameters can be produced for all excavation based on the bulk excavation ; for exterior walls and windows based on area ; roof based on area , etc.

Having produced a total cost for these principal items, all other incidental costs for a structure can be expressed as a percentage on. Pipeline costs can be expressed as per mm diameter of pipe per metre laid, divided into supply and laying.

Overall unit prices can also be developed for checking purposes, such as the cost of a building per m3 volume; or of a tank per m3 storage capacity. Before the cost parameters are derived from previous priced contracts the following procedures are necessary.

If possible not all should be for the lowest tenders received. If a final account is being analysed, then all non-identifiable payments for extras, dayworks and claims should be included in the percentage on.

If these are not to hand, good indicators for updating costs are current dayworks rate for skilled tradesmen and current prices for C25 grade concrete and reinforcement, as compared with those in the priced contract being analysed. The advantages of the method are that the costs are real i. The sum total cost derived needs checking to ensure it appears reasonable. During the design stage it may be found that a previous estimate appears too low; but it is important not to take over-hasty action in reporting this to the employer.

The problems causing the increase should be examined first to see if some savings are possible. If an estimate must be increased it is better to do this only once, because a series of increased estimates may cause an employer to lose confidence in any estimate presented to him. As the design nears completion more accurate estimates can be produced using the quantities taken off to prepare tender documents. It is important that this estimate is produced before tenders are invited.

The estimate can also act as a guide when comparing tendered prices. All possible savings in design need to be sought, not only because this is manifestly in the interests of the employer, but because there are sure to be some unforeseen extra costs that need to be off- set by any savings that can be made.

Alternative designs of layout or of parts of the works have often to be studied before the most economic solution is found; hence completion of all design before starting construction makes a major contribution to controlling project cost.

The first two listed above can be avoided by taking the appropriate measures. The third, however, is not avoidable even if the site investigations have been as reasonably extensive as an experienced engineer would recommend.

The last — changes during construction — can be minimized by ensuring designs are complete before construction commences, and that the employer takes time to assure himself that the works as designed are what he wants. But some changes are unavoidable if, during construction, the employer finds changed economic conditions, new requirements or more up-to-date plant, or new legislation forces him to make a change. If tenders are received which exceed the budget estimate by so large a sum that the employer cannot accept any tender, means of reducing the cost may have to be sought.

Generally speaking, down-sizing a part or the whole of the works is usually not as successful in reducing costs as omitting a part of the works. Reducing the output of some works or the size of a structure by 25 per cent, for instance, seldom results in more than 10 per cent saving in cost, and can make restoration at a later date to the full output or size an expensive and uneconomic proposition. If the employer can find some part of the works which can be omitted, this is a more secure way of reducing the cost of a project, and it should be possible to negotiate such an omission with the preferred tenderer.

Sometimes these have been developed by particular industries or specialist suppliers, but conditions for more general use have been developed by the major engineering and building institutions, as well as by government and allied organizations.

The documents thus drawn up give a reasonable balance of risk between the parties. However, their clauses are often interdependent, hence any alter- ation of them must be done with care, and is generally inadvisable because it may introduce uncertainties of interpretation. The main standard conditions used for civil engineering projects are listed below, with an indication of their main provisions.

The latest edition is the 7th, published in together with guidance notes, reprinted with amendments in This edition is known as the Measurement Version to distinguish it from other ICE types of contract based on this established standard. This gives assurance to both employer and contractor that their interests and obligations under the contract will be fairly dealt with.

Also the contractor is paid for overcoming difficulties he could not reasonably have foreseen. This benefits the employer, since the initial price is low and he does not pay out to cover risks which may not occur. The ICE conditions contain many other provisions that have stood the test of time. These include requirements for early notice of potential delays and prob- lems such as adverse ground conditions and provisions for submission and assessment of claims and valuation of variations.

Properly drawn up and admin- istered, a contract under these conditions appears fair to both parties, and the per- centage of contracts ending in a dispute which goes to arbitration is very small. The need for a maintenance period and for retention money is left to the drafter, and will depend on whether permanent works, such as measuring devices, are included.

The existing edition is now out of date and a new version is being drafted for issue in with provisions for dealing with any contam- inated land discovered. The conditions can be successfully used for lar- ger works, but the standard ICE conditions cover many more of the potential problems that can occur on more complex or longer-term projects. Payment arrangements are left open to be chosen prior to tendering, but are suitable for a single lump sum bid or priced bill of quantities.

The 3rd edition of these conditions was published in He has many duties similar to those of the Engineer under the ICE Measurement Version and is required to behave impartially in regard to certain decisions Clause 2 6. However, care is needed if work is re-measured against billed rates, since the contractor could then choose to adopt forms of design that suit the more profitable bill rates he has quoted.

The contractor can therefore start construction as soon as he has enough design ready. But where a project offers a wide range of design options, a design and construct contract may not offer an employer the best service because the options chosen by the contractor may tend to be those which suit his plant and workforce best, rather than the interests of the employer.

It should be the aim of the par- ties prior to award of contract to arrive at an agreed scheme and specification for the works. Since this form of contract requires extensive input by tenderers their number should be limited to three or four only.

This new form, based on the ICE 7th edition and issued in , sets out a background contract which stays in place for a prescribed term of years and under which the Engineer can instruct packages of works to be undertaken as necessary. Works are ordered through a Works Order which defines what is required and supplies any drawings or specifications not already in the contract. Payment is made by measurement from a schedule of rates in the contract or other agreed means.

The administration and supervision requirements usually follow those of the Measurement Version and will thus be familiar to most engineers. This form can provide a welcome flexibility for employers in procuring irregular items of work or carrying out services which can be called up as and when needed and at short notice.

The form may be suitable for some types of framework arrangement see Section 1. The main construction contract was developed and renamed the Engineering and Construction Contract ECC which went into a second edition in A short form for minor works and a short sub-contract form are also available. The contract requirements are defined in separate sets of data — Works Information and Site Information supplied by the Employer, and Contract Data which set out various pieces of information depending on which options have been chosen.

A project manager appointed by the employer administers the contract on behalf of the employer, assisted by a supervisor on site. A separate adjudicator is appointed to whom the contractor but not the employer can take disputes with the project manager or the supervisor for adjudication.

The contract attempts to overcome some old problems by several new approaches, but the latter may present some new difficulties. A list of eighteen Compensation Events is prescribed, each of which entitles the contractor to claim extra payment and delay.

They include the usual matters of claim such as vari- ation of work, unforeseen conditions, etc. This definition could give rise to problems of interpretation and may lead to claims even when the weather causes no delay. The problems with this approach are discussed in Section Strict time limits of 2 weeks apply to stages of action and response by both contractor and project manager in respect of such quotations and other submissions. These times are tight and may cause difficulties; failure of the project manager to reply within a specified time limit being itself a compensation event!

The stated intent of the drafters of the ECC contract is to stimulate good management. This seems to be achieved by requirements for meetings in a variety of situations, so as to seek advantageous solutions to potential prob- lems, and the tight timetables for responses between the parties.

The addendum acts as an addition to individual contracts, which may be of any type, and allows for revision as partners leave or are added to a project. Contract conditions used for civil engineering work 45 4.

They take the same form as the ICE conditions, but with some variations and simplifications to allow for work outside the UK. Additions can be made to cover local needs and different procedures for payment including payment in different currencies. The 4th edition — sub- stantially revising the 3rd — incorporated changes resulting from consult- ations within the international construction industry and with major international lending agencies.

These conditions were accepted by the major lending agencies who recommend or require their use together with addi- tional clauses and amendments proposed by the agencies. The first is a Contract for Construc- tion to replace the Red Book. Much of the text and the concepts have remained but the whole is re-organized into what was considered a more logical sequence of clauses.

As the title suggests this is intended both for plant supply and installation and for use where much of the civil works may also be designed by the contractor. This contract again uses an independent engineer to monitor design and construction against the requirements and has the DAB to decide disputes. They are, in con- sequence, widely used and are available in a number of different forms, for example, for payment by priced bills of quantities, lump sum, schedule of rates, or for design and construct, or supply only contracts.

The contract is adminis- tered by a project manager or supervising officer who may be given powers similar to those of the engineer under the ICE conditions, but this depends on the policy of the government department concerned and type of work undertaken.

The employer i. Different departments may adopt different approaches in using the conditions, and new methods of contract administration have been tried out from time to time. Earlier editions of these conditions were felt to leave too much of the risk of construction with the con- tractor; for example by allowing neither extra time nor money in the event of bad weather.

Buildings will, of course, include many significant elements of civil construction, such as deep foundations or reinforced concrete structures such as a multi-storey car park.

A range of standard forms of conditions provides for different types of employer and for payment by lump sum or quantities. Usually an architect or contract administrator supervises construction and issues certificates for payment, but a civil engineer may carry out these duties for structural works. Quantity surveyors, advisory to the architect, draw up bills of quantities and produce valuations and estimates.

Unlike civil engineering work, items in the bills contain descriptions of what is required in addition to any specification included in the contract documents, and the work has to be carried out in accordance with the bills and the draw- ings. Much of the work is carried out by sub-contractors appointed by the main contractor or sub-contractors nominated by the employer through the architect. The need for nomination arises so that the architect can obtain exactly the finishes, etc.

This tends to result in an increased possibility of disputes arising. A Clerk of Works may be appointed to supervise work on site for the employer but with very limited powers under the contract.

It is thus possible for there to be three separate appointments — architect, quan- tity surveyor and clerk of works — taking part in supervision and this splitting of responsibilities and duties can lead to problems. A Management form of JCT Contract was introduced in under which the onus for carrying out the work is placed upon a management contractor: that is, a firm of builders or civil engineers whose primary input is to manage and co-ordinate the inputs of sub-contractors see Sections 1.

The form is still in use especially in its modified G90 form in the water industry despite the introduction of MF1 see below. The contract allows for definition of what is required in outline and by specification, the contractor being responsible for the design and manufacture or procurement. The total plant required for a project is often procured by issue of contracts covering separate specialities, such as pumps and motors, switchgear, or instrumentation selected to suit the capabilities of tenderers.

Provision for any associated civil works included in the contract is elementary: if they are required it is best they should be included as a fully designed package that can be sub-let. Payment terms are usually lump sum, but interim payments and some items of re-measure can be included. The terms provide for restricted liability of the contractor for defects other than during the first year of maintenance. The first edition was published in but further revisions with amendments have been issued, Revision 4 being issued in Among other matters, payment terms have to be decided and details added.

The 3rd edition is a substantially altered and improved version of the 2nd edition. Again it is intended for work worldwide so it allows for additions to cover local needs. The contractor carries the main responsibility for design but must comply with any requirements set out in the contract. He arranges all procurement including any civil, mechan- ical, electrical and instrument work, etc.

Performance tests are required to prove that the effective- ness of the plant is as specified in the contract.

Provisions for dealing with claims and variations are not extensive; the expectation being that, prior to the award of contract, the parties will have agreed in detail the specific items of plant to be provided, so that little change is needed. The project manager is not fully independent, though required to be impartial in some actions; the purchaser is bound by the decisions made by his project manager and cannot dispute them in arbitration.

Provision is made for an independent expert to be called in to decide some technical or valuation matters. Since there is little allowance for unforeseen constructional problems, the conditions may not be suitable for major associated civil engineering works. The contract can be on the basis of cost plus a percentage fee rarely used or cost plus a fixed fee, or a target cost.

Payment terms have to define which costs are reimbursable and which are covered by any lump sum payments. This amounts to payment in advance. A project manager adminis- ters the contract but he does not have a fully independent status, although he is required to act impartially in some matters. The purchaser is responsible for the actions of the project manager and cannot dispute his decisions.

These I Chem E conditions have been used occasionally for certain civil engineering works, primarily because they form a framework on which to base a cost reimbursement contract. These agreements are compatible with the standard ICE forms of contract but are also intended for use alongside any of the major forms of construction con- tract setting out the obligations and liabilities of the consultant and defining his duties.

Forms are also available for use with GCWorks 1. The sub-contractor is deemed to have full knowledge of the main contract and many provisions such as for payment, claims and variations are intended to reflect the terms of the main contract. Mechanisms for dealing with dis- putes also reflect the standard ICE conditions and provision is made for these to be dealt with jointly where the matter in dispute affects both contracts.

From these considerations it should be possible to decide on the content of each contract as to the scope of works, whether or not the contractor is to carry out any design or whether designs will be provided complete for construc- tion. These together with any financial requirements should enable a choice to be made of the conditions of contract likely to be most suitable for the works see Chapter 4. One of the main aims in these decisions will be to try to ensure that contracts are packaged to suit the capabilities of the tenderers likely to be invited.

Preparing contract documents 51 5. Their roles are defined in the contract. However, because there is a need for day-to-day supervision of civil engineering construction, the two parties may agree that a third person should carry out such duties. This third person can have varying powers under the contract and this is reflected in his designation.

The roles of these participants are described briefly below; the use of a capital letter in their designation being discontinued except where necessary for clarity. He sets down what he requires and specifies this in the tender documents, which he issues to firms of con- tractors to seek their offers to carry out the works. His obligations include ensuring that the works are legally acceptable and practical, and that the site for them is freely available.

He may also need to arrange that associated needs, such as the supply of power, drainage and the like which he is providing, are available. Having set up these basic elements he must, above all, ensure that he can meet his obligation to pay the contractor in accordance with the con- tract. If any dispute remains unresolved under the contract, the employer must decide what action to take; either to negotiate some settlement or, per- haps, take the dispute to adjudication, arbitration or the courts.

The contractor takes on the obligation to construct the works. In his offer to the employer he puts himself forward as being able to build the works to the requirements set out in the tender documents. In order to do this he will have studied the documents and any geotechnical or other information provided or otherwise available, visited the site and checked the availability of such labour, plant and materials as may be needed. Once his offer is accepted and the contract is formed the contractor takes on the obligation of doing all and anything needed to complete the works in accordance with the contract, regardless of difficulties he may encounter.

He is responsible for all work done by his sub-contractors and suppliers, and any design work the contract requires him to undertake. He is not a party to the contract; but he is named in it with duties determined by the parties. Although he is appointed and paid by the employer, he has to supervise the construction of the works as an independent person, making sure they accord with the specified require- ments.

He also acts as an independent valuer of what should be paid to the contractor, and as a decider of issues arising in the course of construction. Given efficient contract documents and completion of the designs before construction starts, the appointment of an independent engineer to adminis- ter the contract encourages contractors to submit their keenest prices.

Many contractors will seek out the reputation of such an engineer for his experience and ability to apply fair dealing, and will adjust their prices accordingly.

This benefits both the employer and contractor since it gives assurance that their interests will be protected. Few civil engineering contracts handled in this manner need settlement by resort to arbitration or a court of law. A project manager holds a different appointment from the independent engineer described above. He may carry out many similar duties as the engineer under the traditional form of contract, but he is not fully independent.

The specific content of the contract will define the limit of his powers to act independently. Decisions made by the project manager on matters that are subject to assent by the employer will commit the employer, who will not be able to dispute them. If the contractor is to offer his lowest prices he has to be assured the terms of the contract will be interpreted impartially; for this reason an adjudicator is appointed to whom the contractor can take his disputes with the project manager.

The supervisor under the ECC has a role which is mostly restricted to watching over construction and attending tests, etc. His main role, however, is to ensure the works are carried out as required by the contract. The contract thus binds the contractor to construct the works as defined, and the employer to pay for them in the manner and timing set out. As civil engineering works are often complex, involving the contractor in many hundreds of different operations using many different materials and manu- factured items, including employment of a wide variety of specialists, the documents defining the contract are complex and comprehensive.

The task of preparing them for tendering therefore warrants close attention to detail and uniformity of approach, so as to achieve a coherent set of documents which forms an unambiguous and manageable contract.

A typical set of documents prepared for tendering will include the following. Instructions to tenderers These tell the contractor where and when he must deliver his tender and what matters he must fill in to provide information on guarantees, bond, proposed methods for construction, etc. The instructions may also inform him of items which will be supplied by the employer, and sources of materials he should use e. The particular conditions adopted may contain amendments or additions that the employer wishes to make to the standard con- ditions.

Usually the standard conditions which are available in printed form are not reproduced in the tender documents but they will be named by specific reference and a schedule will show what changes have been made to them. The specification This describes in words the works required, the quality of materials and workmanship to be used, and methods of testing to be adopted to ensure compliance.

The specification usually starts with a description of the works to be constructed, followed by all relevant data concerning the site, access, past records of weather, etc.

Further details are given in Section 5. Bill of quantities or schedule of prices These form an itemized list covering the works to be constructed, against each item of which the tenderer has to quote a price. This permits re-measure according to the actual quantity done under each item. Some bills contain many hundreds of items, classified by trade or accord- ing to a standard method of measurement; other bills contain a less number of items see Chapter A schedule of prices may comprise a series of lump sums or it may call for rates only, but can list provisional quantities which are estimated, that is, uncertain.

They would be used, for instance, for a contract for sinking boreholes, items being provided for boring in stages of depth, the total depth to which any hole has to be sunk not being known in advance. The appendices to tender will contain other matters defining the contract terms and which the tenderer confirms he accepts in making his offer, such as time for completion of the works, damages for failure to complete on time, minimum amount of insurances, completion of bond, etc.

There may be other matters concerning the basis of his offer he is required to supply, such as cur- rency exchange rates for international contracts or sources of materials. The contract drawings These should provide as complete a picture as possible of all the works to be built.

The more complete the contract drawings are, the more accurately the contractor can price the work, and the less likelihood there is that variations and extra payments will be necessary. However, it is not necessary at tender stage to provide every detailed drawing that will ultimately be required such as all concrete reinforcement drawings so long as the contract drawings pro- vided to tenderers show quite clearly what is required.

On small jobs all the foregoing documents may be combined in one volume; but on most jobs at least two and sometimes three or more volumes will be necessary. A tenderer is usually sent a second copy of the instructions to ten- derers, bill of quantities, tender and appendices, so that he can keep one copy of what he has bid. When preparing contract documents a number of matters of contractual import- ance must be considered. For the standard ICE conditions entries will be required in the appendix to the Form of Tender but for the ECC conditions it will be necessary to decide which options are to be included as part of the con- ditions of contract as well as making appropriate entries in the Contract Data.

The Defects Correction Period must be stated. This is the period during which the contractor must repair any defects in the works resulting from his workmanship. The period is usually 52 weeks for major construction but may be more or less depending on whether there is running plant involved or how soon defects may become apparent.

A Performance Bond is usually required where the employer feels he needs financial protection against a contractor failing to complete the works either due to lack of resources or financial instability. The size of the bond should cover having to re-tender and any extra costs to complete. The value should thus be chosen to suit the work but should not generally exceed 10 per cent of the value of works.

Bonds are, however, relatively expensive to supply and thus put up prices and so may be considered unnecessary if the contractor is substantial, or part of a large group who can supply a parent company guarantee. Insurance against third party risks needs to have a value set with reference to the likely risks of damage. In a rural area this may be small, but works near a major industrial complex may need a higher level of cover. Normally it is the contractor who provides insurance cover both for the works and third parties but sometimes employers prefer to provide these insurances to save costs.

This can lead to problems when the cover provided does not fully represent the risks which arise. The Time for Completion of the works should be set at a reasonable period given a proper level of resources. In many cases there will be a need for sec- tions of the works to be defined and separate times for completion to be set for each of these.

Sections may be needed if other contractors are to have access to the site e. Since the employer will be kept from using his works and may incur other costs if the contractor fails to complete on time it is usual to set liquidated damages to compensate him for his loss. These must be calculated as a genuine pre-estimate of the loss based on the value of the works output and other costs anticipated. Most contracts provide that a portion of the money due to a contractor each month be retained by the employer.

This retention has to be set and is usually a percentage often 5 per cent of the value of works certified up to a limit. The intention is to provide cover for defects and outstanding work but retention is unpopular with contractors who point out that bonds and money yet to be certified for payment provide funds should this be necessary. An inconsistency in the documents can give rise to a major dispute under the contract, having a serious effect on its financial out- come.

Some guiding principles are as follows. These need plan- ning out beforehand. It is not easy to achieve an error-free specification. It is of considerable assistance to copy model clauses that, by use and modification over many previous contracts, have proved satisfactory in their wording. Such model clauses can be held on computer files so they are easy to reproduce and mod- ify to make relevant to the particular project in hand.

Copying whole texts from a previous specification which can result in contradictory requirements should not be adopted. Entirely new material is quite difficult to write and will almost certainly require more than one attempt to get it satisfactory. Under the first an informative description is given of what the contractor is to provide and all special factors, limitations, etc.

Under the second the detailed requirements are set out. The extent of detail adopted should relate to the quantity and importance of any particular type of work in relation to the works required. Thus the specification for concrete quality may be very exten- sive where much structural concrete is to be placed; but it may be quite short if concrete is only required as bedding or thrust blocks to a pipeline. Repetition of requirements should be avoided.

If requirements appear in two places, ambiguity or conflict can be caused by differences of wording. Also there is a danger that a late alteration alters one statement but fails to alter its repetition elsewhere. Some methods may need to be specified, such as the requirements con- cerning the handling and placing of concrete, but these and similar matters should be specified under workmanship and materials clauses.

Other direc- tions on method should be given only if essential for the design. For instance, if it is necessary to under-pin or shore up an existing structure, the exact method used should not be specified for, if the contractor follows the method and damage ensues, the liability for damage may lie on the designer. Usually there is no need to specify a particular method, but there may be a need to rule out certain methods; for example, that the contractor is not to use explosives.

The drafter might think it covers any rock encountered but it does not if the geological data supplied with the contract or reasonably available to the contractor provides no evidence of the existence of rock. If there is evidence that rock might be encountered, a definition of it is required as discussed in Section Details and dimensions of the plant will be required to permit design of structures to proceed.

Thus the employer has to let contracts for the supply of such plant in time for delivery of the plant to occur when the construction needs to incorporate it. Figure 5. A plan of this kind is needed for many types of project. However, because the employer orders the plant he becomes liable for any delay caused to the civil contractor if he does not place an order in time, or the plant supplier defaults on his promised delivery period.

Although this may result in plant being ready before the construction contractor needs it, this is the best policy to follow. T Manufacture Supply First buildings ready 3. T All buildings ready Manufacture 4. T Supply Start delivery 2 months safety margin Substantial completion — do. This consultation guide comes only if you did not find your civil engineering project topic and material on this website.

If interested contact us now. Are you interested in getting any topic? Our civil engineering project topics PDF have their complete materials ready for instant download. In conclusion, we have listed above the best topics in civil engineering.

Do you need help? Whatever degree you are acquiring in any school, we have listed above, complete civil engineering project topics and PDF research materials document for instant downloads. There are a lot of fields you can choose. Site Planning and building form are very important from the point of view of seismic performance of the structure. Also it is very important to have proper compatibility of elements resisting seismic forces.

Site planning and selection of building forms is the first step in designing of any structure and the decisions taken are very crucial for the behavior of those structures during any earthquake. Based on examples taken from various past earthquakes and theories, this project gives guidelines for site planning, selection of building form and formulation of architectural design concepts for earthquake resistant structures in the earthquake prone zones.

Download Complete project with report and presentation. Road Transport is vital to India's economy. It enables the country's transportation sector contribute 4. Road transport has gained in importance over the years despite significant barriers and inefficiencies in inter-state freight and passenger movement compared to railways and air. The government of India considers road network as critical to the country's development, social integration and security needs of the country. India's road network carries over 65 percent of its freight and about 85 percent of passenger traffic.

Indian road network is administered by various government authorities, given India's federal form of government. National highways connect capitals, important places, ports and places of strategic importance of various states. Flexible pavement is composed of a bituminous material surface course and underlying base and sub base courses. The bituminous material is more often asphalt whose viscous nature allows significant plastic deformation.

Most asphalt surfaces are built on a gravel base, although some 'full depth' asphalt surfaces are built directly on the sub grade.